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Furthermore, it was the honours of Charlemagne which were borne by the honorary marshals in Notre-Dame, and Ingres took his inspiration from Charlemagne for his celebrated painting of Napoleon on his throne. [8] Its divisions were not ethnic (as the divisions of the Curia were), but rather geographical. 1920 East Prussian plebiscite - Wikipedia They were merely an additional measure to induce loyalty to Germany in youngsters, because, similar to ecclesiastical issues mentioned before, the training of teachers in the Saar Basin was left by the Governing Commission to Germany. 26 Wambaugh, New Tools for Peaceful Settlement, April 13, 1944, SWP1, box 7, folder 6, 20. Finally, there was hardly any objection to the title emperor, which was in itself almost simply the logical conclusion of calling the state an empire. The Saar plebiscite, held on January 13, 1935, was the last to be conducted under the Treaty of Versailles, and Wambaugh devoted an entire opus to it. ), Napoleon always considered himself the representative of the Nation. She also taught at the Geneva Institute for Advanced International Studies in 1935, and in the 1940s she was a consultant to the director of the enemy branch of the Foreign Economic Administration in the United States. Another example was the voting on the European Constitution in 2005. This intertwined set-up of universal suffrage in combination with transnational debates over geographical separation, cession or annexation (Wambaugh Reference Wambaugh1920, ix) was Wambaughs stepping stone into diplomatic circles, allowing her to build a livelihood by investigating an extremely neoteric and, so far, underexamined theme in diplomatic historiography, theory, and practice. Carinthian Canal Valley were assigned to Italy, the southern part of Styria went to the new Kingdom of the Southern Slavs and a large strip of German-speaking territory in the north ern part of the country was given to Czechoslovakia. The text of the speeches given at the Tribunat and at the Snat have been published by the Fondation Napolon: (It should be noted in passing that this is remarkable, since the Emperor had not respected this oath when the Snat voted his deposition, in April 1814. The most well-known was the Treaty of Versailles, which dealt with Germany. Plebiscite Definition & Meaning - Merriam-Webster Tangibly, the complex triangular constellation of maternalism, suffrage, and service for ones nation became the crux for locating Wambaughs rather comfortable place within the worldwide and interwar plebiscite schemes and programs of the LoN. Over time, however, these legal differences were mitigated with legislation. Plebiscite | Referendum, Voting, Democracy | Britannica Is it not true that in the 1950s we spoke of the French colonial empire whilst of course neither Ren Coty nor Vincent Auriol were emperors. Referendums and Plebiscites Legitimacy is that which gives power its justification and validity. (3) The government decided to hold plebiscites to determine public opinion on the proposed policy changes. Moreover, she corresponded with Wutte, who, for his part, sought to elicit and harness transatlantic approval and prestige with the outcome of the 1920 plebiscite.Footnote Although the signatories of the Treaty always tried to reinforce universal suffrage, as mentioned earlier, this was not to be taken for granted. Lex Ogulnia (300 BC), which entitled plebeian citizens to one half of the priesthoods in the. Plebiscite: Everything that the plebs ordered and arranged for themselves. So the renowned exemplar could be exploited broadly and in almost complete liberty. Notwithstanding that Tacna-Arica was mostly devoid of precious minerals, unlike neighboring areas, Wambaugh depicted its topography in candid words as a strategic gateway (Wambaugh Reference Wambaugh1933:1, 333) to the Pacific Ocean with crucial ports for Bolivian access. Parallel to that argument, she underscored that the claim to the right of secession by plebiscite (Wambaugh Reference Wambaugh1933:1, 488) was acknowledged neither by President Wilson nor by the Paris Peace Conference. Initiative, referendum, and recall are three means by which the people may bring their will to bear directly on the legislative process and the machinery of government. Tacna-Arica, to a certain extent, was also a continuation of geopolitical constellations during the Great War, with Peru rather siding with the US and Chile more favorable towards and thus also backed by Germany. 16 caused much dispute between the two parties involved (Wright Reference Wright1925, 34; Jane Reference Jane1929, 96). Besides inheriting her fathers interest in legal matters, her decade-long commitment to this social project honed her dedication to gender equality that she came to pursue for the rest of her life. 24 urging that pro-German sermons should be preached from the pulpits on the Sunday preceding the plebiscite on January 13, 1935. The thirty curiae gathered into a legislative assembly known as the Comitia Curiata or Curiate Assembly. While Wambaugh regarded this as unproblematic in the case of the Klagenfurt Basin, which was a small, rural environment with adequate transport routes that could be easily policed (Wambaugh Reference Wambaugh1933:1, 497498), she feared it would endanger the fairness of the plebiscite process in the mountainous, inaccessible landscape of Tacna-Arica. 6 Wambaugh, Frontiers by Plebiscite, SWP1, box 2, folder 3, 16a. As the Yugoslav side hermetically sealed their zone as if it were a battle front (Wambaugh Reference Wambaugh1933:1, 182), children and women, as seemingly unpolitical and harmless bystanders, were employed by the Austrian propaganda to smuggle this material into enemy territory. Opponents of the Prince can claim that they are the best, or the most appropriate, especially when circumstances change and the general situation, considered chaotic at the beginning, gets better which was certainly the case for the First Consul. Some definitions of 'plebiscite' suggest that it is a type of vote to change the constitution or government of a country. As empires had dissolved or crumbled, new demarcations lines emerged, and especially the European continent witnessed partially armed disputes over territories and regions. Furthermore, what is true at one point is not necessarily true at another. Additionally, most tribes were located outside of the city, whereas the plebeian Tribunes were exclusive to the city. 4 Colonel Martin further recounted the apparent anomaly that German-speaking estate holders favored Yugoslavia, while much to his surprise the majority of the Slovenes thought it wiser that they should continue to be subjects of Austria (Martin Reference Martin, Bishop and Keogh1929, 348). A referendum must pass a double majority, achieving a majority vote at the national level, and a majority of the vote in a majority of the states. Our men, where are they? In the 1930s, the Saar Basin also became a refuge for many Jewish, communist, and socialist exiles from Nazi Germany. 929.) [26] However, others believe that they were separate assemblies. Some plebiscites have gained international attention since the late 1970s, because they dealt with matters of great concern to large groups of people. Wambaugh, again, relied almost uncritically on Wuttes work and used the term Windisch herself, comparing it to Wasserpolnisch (Wambaugh Reference Wambaugh1933:1, 213), spoken in Upper Silesia. (On Napoleons legitimacies: Charles Durand, Le pouvoir napolonien et ses lgitimits , Annales de la facult de droit et de science politique dAix-Marseille, n 58, 1972, p. 7-33; Frdric Bluche, Le Bonapartisme. In 1967, the Legislative Assembly tested the political interests of the Puerto Rican people by passing a local Plebiscite Act that allowed a vote on the status of Puerto Rico. Australia defines 'referendum' as a vote to change the constitution and 'plebiscite' as a vote that does not affect the constitution. My Gift The wives of miners, for instance, were invited by mayors of German cities as heroic victims of a despotic rule, and festivals and military parades were held in their honor (Wambaugh Reference Wambaugh1940, 110). Since it based itself of the forms of legitimacy derived from the Revolution, the Empire could not be stripped of its historical roots, above all in a society in which history was the fundamental pillar of all thought. [1] Others define it as the opposite. As a thorough examination of all plebiscites that Wambaugh scrutinized would go beyond the scope of this article, three interwar referenda, two in Central Europe, one in South America, have been selected: the plebiscite in the Klagenfurt Basin in 1920, the attempted plebiscite in Tacna and Arica, 192526, and the plebiscite in the Saar territory in 1935. A plebiscite can be a government's way of finding out the opinion of the people before making a significant policy change. Therefore, the approach taken by the Carinthian policy makers divided Slovenes into two categories: the loyal ones, supportive of their German compatriots, and traitors, looking towards Yugoslavia and frequently labelled as irredentists. 1, January 1, 1935, 1, reprinted in Mller, Reference Mller1963, 328. 2023. However, the content of the text of An XII repeated many rules from the old Capetian monarchy (notably those referring to the imperial succession and the return of the Salic law which excluded women and their descendants perpetually from the succession). The displayed Christian and especially Catholic symbolism obviously catered to most Saarlanders denomination, but it also synergized with the decision of the Roman Catholic Bishop of Trier, Franz Rudolf Bornewasser, to pick Germany over France openly and officially. 1 The two terms plebiscite and referendum are more or less employed interchangeably. By foregrounding humanitarian concerns and social reform during and after wartimes in the 1940s, she also harked back to her roots and earliest training in feminist aptitudes that she had acquired via the Womens Educational and Industrial Union of Boston. Unlike most other (male) analysts of the Tacna-Arica situation of her time Quincy Wright or Edwin Montefiore Borchard, for example Wambaugh elaborated on the blatant marginalization of women of this planned plebiscite. As in 800, it was a pope who would anoint (but not crown) the emperor. Accordingly, [a]ll persons without distinction of sex, more than twenty years old at the date of the voting, resident in the territory at the date of the signature of the present TreatyFootnote She further admitted that she could only rely on the various statements and documents of the American and Chilean delegations (Wambaugh Reference Wambaugh1933:1, x) for her book chapter on Tacna-Arica. All that remained was to define the nature of this monarchy. This article deals with Sarah Wambaughs life and work concerning global territorial questions of border disputes and nationalities as well as minorities issues. You could almost say the Revolutionaires liked them so much they wrote four (1791, 1793, 1795, 1799)! (2) The plebiscites were a valuable tool for gauging public sentiment on the controversial issue. for this article. She continued to explain further how Carinthian peasant women (with a Slovene background) consulted their priests, most of whom were rather strong supporters of the Slovene national cause, only after they had ticked their ballot papers for remaining with Austria: But even the peasant women were sufficiently independent to vote against their priests advice, for a Slav told me that many of the women had come to the priests for absolution for having voted for Austria.Footnote To this day, a southern province of Austria, Carinthia, has a mixed German- and Slovene-speaking population, with the Slovene minority amounting to circa 25% in 1920, mostly residing in areas bordering todays Slovenia. Allenstein was an independent city within the German Empire. [20] This ended the Conflict of the Orders, and brought the plebeians to a level of full political equality with the patricians. With remarkable foresight, she anticipated Cold War atmospheres and evermore pressing subjects of migratory flows and movements on a global scale that echo past the short twentieth century. [22], The Tribunes of the Plebs were elected by the Plebeian Council. 5. What is left is called circumstances or necessities, opportunities to be seized or virtue, as Machiavelli called it, a term which brings in the human factor, personal ambition or the desire to act (what could be called a project). 7 Theoretically, Saint Germain compelled each nation to observe and safeguard the diverse minorities legal entitlements; practically, it became a substratum for future rifts, antagonisms, and discrimination in many instances, as Carinthian battles, reverberating into the twenty-first century over mere bilingual topographical signposts for villages and towns, exemplified (Knight Reference Knight2000, Reference Knight2017). 1921 Upper Silesia plebiscite - Wikipedia In this text, Wambaugh thus outlined new types of borderlands beyond territorial quandaries, where two or more nationalities are so mingled that no appropriate frontier can be drawn (Wambaugh Reference Wambaugh and Davis1945a, 108). Similarly, she deciphered womens status in the political and legal spheres, next to their position in the private space, and how this could affect the result of the pending referendum. Accordingly, plebiscites were a concomitant of the spreading of universal or common suffrage and the emergence of nation-states in the western hemisphere. The word is a Latin expression, meaning "referendum". I. Napolon et la conqute de lEurope, Fayard, 2002, p. 98-101.) Firstly, as a newly created republic, Austria was considered to be more progressive with better social benefits and welfare provisions than the SCS Monarchy. He did not get away with not having to justify his rule. In that year of 1804, each stage of the transformation from the Life Consulate to the Empire was measured and re-measured with respect to these questions. Find out more. [25] Since plebeians were not able to take political actions themselves, the Tribunes had the opportunity to make lasting impacts through their political office. 23 were entitled to choose between three alternatives: the status quo (i.e., the continued protectorate of the LoN), opting for France, or for Germany. PLEBISCITE | English meaning - Cambridge Dictionary 1 she either oversaw for the LoN or dissected for her research and many publications on the issue. Finally, a referendum was scheduled for the mid-1920s, but never materialized. At the time the conscription votes were both called referendums. III, Sect. Accordingly, plebiscites were a concomitant of the spreading of universal or common suffrage and the emergence of nation-states in the western hemisphere. The aforementioned socio-economic calibration by these constituencies about nearby markets, for instance, was completely eclipsed in this black-and-white pattern of the mischievous versus the derivative alien other. Everyone knows that the first article of the Snatus-consulte founding the Empire stipulated: The government of the Republic is handed over to an Emperor. [15] The Plebeian Council disappeared shortly after the reign of Tiberius. 9 For this purpose, he was at the forefront of lobbying for the Knight Cross, first class, an Austrian order of merit, for Wambaugh, which she was actually awarded in 1935. Paradoxically, one woman had the chance to find an entre into diplomatic affairs and international relations (henceforth IR), itself a newly coined phrase in the wake of the First World War, albeit mostly as a backstage agent, operating behind the scenes, via her knowledge and expertise in plebiscites. (Definition of plebiscite from the Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary & Thesaurus Cambridge University Press) Examples of plebiscite plebiscite The popular will as expressed in a society's political culture need not coincide with whatever would be reflected in an opinion poll or a plebiscite. (See Jacques Godechot, Les institutions de la France sous la Rvolution et lEmpire, P.U.F., 1st edition, 1951. Our formal history of plebiscites began on May 14, 1935, when we went to the polls for the first time, to approve or reject a proposed constitution. The French monarchy itself developed and completed the concept of divine right from customary practices, practices which were grouped in a well-established corpus and recognised as the kingdoms fundamental laws. [18] Thus, the Plebeian Council became independent of the patrician aristocracy in everything but name. Dateline Philippines | ANC (15 July 2023) - Facebook With the Revolution, France had entered into a period of written constitutions. During a modification of the original Valerian law in 449 BC, plebiscites acquired the full force of law, and thus applied to all Romans. It is a long established fact that a reader will be distracted by the readable content of a page when looking at its layout. Plebiscites | The Princeton Encyclopedia of Self-Determination This is a device, used mostly in the United States at the state and local level, whereby voters may remove a public official from office before the expiration of his or her term. Total loading time: 0 101-137.) All content on this website, including dictionary, thesaurus, literature, geography, and other reference data is for informational purposes only. (It should be noted in passing that this is remarkable, since the Emperor had not respected this oath when the Snat voted his deposition, in April 1814. 18 Yale law professor Edwin Montefiore Borchard was chief council to Peru from 1923 to 1925. With her astute eye for gender inequalities and hierarchies, Wambaugh understood the dialectics of franchise rights, particularly as a quid pro quo for military service and combatant availability. Miless team came to the conclusion that this basin was a geographic and economic unit and that the majority of all residents, even Slovenes, preferred to stay with Austria.Footnote At its formation, the Plebeian Council was organized by Curiae and served as an electoral council wherein plebeian citizens could vote to pass laws. [26] De Martino and Von Fritz believe that after the Lex Hortensia of 287 BC, patricians must not have been excluded from the Plebeian Council, as the laws created by the council were now applicable to the patricians. This post-1918 US role was determined by trying to stymy the vested interests of Britain, France, and Germany in the natural resources there. For example, when a school district wants to issue bonds for building construction, it goes to the voters with an obligatory referendum. "coreDisableEcommerceForBookPurchase": false, Based on the census of 1910, 99.36% of the Saarlanders described themselves as German (Lewy Reference Lewy1964, 184) and, indeed, Wambaugh overtly asserted that this plebiscite was of only one nationality (Wambaugh Reference Wambaugh1940, v). Napoleon and his collaborators thought long and hard about all these aspects. 27. 12. . I, Department of State, Central Files, 751G.00/62955: https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1955-57v01/d217 (Accessed November 25, 2020.). In 1921 the voters of North Dakota removed from office the governor, attorney general, and commissioner of agriculture. Compared to all other referenda that she observed, the plebiscite preparations for Carinthia and Tacna-Arica were the only ones without neutral troops supporting the plebiscite commission (Wambaugh Reference Wambaugh1933:1, 447). When Revolution came, the demands of legitimacy changedunder pressure from the idea of popular sovereignty, which itself disappeared behind the mysterious and still todayill-defined concept, ofthe Nation, the Holy Spirit of democracy, whereby votes counted were replaced by the idea of representation, which itself merged into what was called general will (volont gnrale), in other words, something higher and more immaterial than the multiplicity of votes. In her approach to the complexities and conundrums of plebiscites during the interwar years, Wambaugh, though operating as an impartial agent for the LoN, was, nevertheless, decidedly influenced by Wilsonian politics and rhetoric specifically and an American interpretation of democracy generally. Finally, legislative actions under the category of 'Mutually Binding Consultation' are those which aim to solidify and increase the power and authority of the Council of the Plebs. Representing a nuanced spectrum of conducted and abandoned plebiscites as well as short- and long-term territorial disputes at the intersections of language, economics, religion, paramilitary violence, and gender, these referenda also help to highlight Wambaughs agency and attitudes. As an umbrella organization, the Deutsche Front [German Front] subsumed several political interest groups by forcefully lobbying for the NSDAP and was mostly condoned by international appeasement strategies toward the Third Reich. 1936 German parliamentary election and referendum Parliamentary elections were held in Germany on 29 March 1936. Like previous votes in the Nazi era, it was rigged,[2] with a claimed turnout of 99% and 98.8% voting in favour. Chaisty, Paul The East Prussian plebiscite [1] [2] ( German: Abstimmung in Ostpreuen ), also known as the Allenstein and Marienwerder plebiscite [3] [4] [5] or Warmia, Masuria and Powile plebiscite [6] ( Polish: Plebiscyt na Warmii, Mazurach i Powilu ), was a plebiscite for the self-determination of the regions of southern Warmia (Ermland), Masuria (Mazury.